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Contents:

Introduction
Antoinette Verhage, Lieselot Bisschop & Wim Hardyns

Articles

Plural Policing in Western Europe. A Comparison
Elke Devroe (1) & Jan Terpstra (2)

Abstract
One of the almost undisputed findings of contemporary policing studies is thatthe past few decades have witnessed a far-reaching pluralization of policing. Manycountries, in different regions of the world, were confronted with the rise of newnon-police providers of policing services. Increasingly, the myth of one organization(the public police) with a monopoly on policing lost its power of persuasion as avalid description of reality. Generally, the new agencies of policing concentrate onthe management of petty crime and social disorder in public places. With this newsituation, multiple providers, both public and private, have become involved in theprevention and management of crime and social disorder. It is often assumed thatthis development of the past three decades created a more or less quiet revolution(or what Bayley and Shearing (1996) called a ‘watershed’) in the systems of crimecontrol and law enforcement. Although this claim has been disputed, also in theAnglo-Saxon world (Jones & Newburn, 2002), the proposition of the pluralizationof policing often seems to have reached the status of a universal, world-wide trend.Until recently, however, outside the Anglo-Saxon world there has been a lack ofempirical studies on plural policing. With the exception of the collection editedby Jones and Newburn (2006), the recent study by Terpstra, Van Stokkom andSpreeuwers (2013), and the volume edited by Edwards et al. (2014), there were noother international comparative studies of this issue. As a result, until now the claim of a universally similar trend of plural policing has remained largely uncontested.In fact, the absence of international comparisons implied that theories and explanationsof plural policing were based only on a limited (Anglo-Saxon) sample ofcountries. As a consequence, there was an unanswered question concerning theextent to which descriptions and explanations of plural policing were also relevantto understanding recent changes elsewhere. For example, one question that must beasked is if there is something like a Western-European style of plural policing? Orare the differences between these European countries so great that the developmentsin policing cannot be gathered under a single conceptual label?

Keywords: Criminal investigation teams, decision-making, tunnel vision, naturalistic decision making

The Policing of Public Space. Recent Developments in Plural Policingin England and Wales
Trevor Jones (1) & Stuart Lister (2)

Abstract
This p

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Contents:

Introduction
A. Verhage, L. Bisschop, W. Hardyns

Articles

Investigating decision-making mechanisms and biases in Dutch criminal investigation teams by using a serious game
Jelle Groenendaal (1) en Ira Helsloot (2)

Abstract
In this article we examine by means of a serious game how ten teams of police leaders from major criminal investigation teams from five regional forces in the Netherlands, during criminal investiga-tion, deal with tunnel vision and other potential causes of flawed decision-making, described according to Naturalistic Decision-Making models. Findings show that in the serious game, the danger of tunnel vision was widely acknowledged and that a great deal of energy was wasted as a result. In addition, the teams proved susceptible to other types of decision-making pitfalls. For example, the teams searched predominantly for confirmatory evidence, unconsciously used ingrained process-related rules of thumb, and there was evidence of a form of ‘information impulsion fallacy’. The present research is an elaboration on existing literature in that it attempts to shed light on decision-making practices during criminal investigations. The study shows that a serious game can be a useful tool to uncover decision-making behaviour.

Keywords: Criminal investigation teams, decision-making, tunnel vision, naturalistic decision making

Women as Leaders in Policing: A Path Forward
Maria Koeppel (1)

Abstract
As a result of changing gender dynamics in leadership, a substantial body of literature has been dedicated to understanding differences between leadership styles and effectiveness for men and women, often finding differences between the two groups. Despite this growing body of research, there is still a substantial gap in the leadership and policing literature, specifically regarding women as leaders in policing. This paper provides an overview of the gender leadership literature both in and out of policing, as well as a succinct review of research pertaining to women as leaders in policing. Recommendations for future research are drawn from existing literature in a call for a greater understanding of the role of gender in leadership in policing.

Keywords: policing, leadership, gender

(1) Maria Koeppel received her Ph.D. in criminal justice from Sam Houston State University. Her research interests include victimology, gender, and sexual identity. Currently she is working as a research analyst for the Kansas Department of Corrections.

Guardian of Democracy?
Theoretical aspects of police roles and functions in democracy
Samuel Salzborn (1)

Abstract
In the research on democracy and democratization, there is a lack of systematic thought on the relationship between police and democracy. In this paper I argue that it is possible to go beyond empirical and historical research into police roles and functions in real-life political systems, in order to formulate a theoretical framework that outlines the specific relationships between police and democracy. Because the functions of police in democracies are clearly different from those existing under authoritarian and totalitarian regimes, it makes sense to examine these interrelationships more closely. Although the pol

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Contents:

Introduction
A. Verhage, L. Bisschop, W. Hardyns

Articles

Professional disobedience. The impact of technology and multilevel dispatching on police practice
B. Böing (1)

Abstract
This article draws on a field experiment that took place in Amsterdam in 2012 to examine the impact of technology on police practice. The experiment consisted of four simulated robberies in which the use of the global positioning system (GPS) and short data service (SDS) were systematically varied (in a 2x2 between-subjects design) with different levels of operational command. The experiment resulted in faster coordination and less radio traffic. But this experiment also showed something else: almost all operational units displayed more or less disobedient behaviour. They deliberately deviated from orders to go to particular locations in the city to search for the suspects. In this article it is argued that this behaviour can be explained through officers’ situational awareness and the use of SDS. Additional interviews and group discussions further indicate that the lack of trust and hierarchical control may also have contributed to this behaviour. It is the question whether the findings of this study covers the current state of police practice in the Netherlands and perhaps beyond. This remains a subject for further study. The results from this experiment can be valuable for analysis in social behaviour studies among police units.

Keywords: Professional disobedience, police, GPS, SDS, situational awareness

(1) Researcher at the Amsterdam Police Department in the Netherlands.

Burnout as predictor of aggressivity among police officers
C. Queirós (1), M. Kaiseler (2) & A. Leitão da Silva (3)

Abstract
This paper aims to understand the relationship between aggressivity and burnout among police officers, more precisely, it investigates whether burnout is a predictor of aggressivity among police officers. The study focuses on the relationship between burnout and aggressivity, using regression analysis to identify aggressivity predictors. The Maslach Burnout Inventory was used to measure burnout, while the Aggression Questionnaire was used to measure aggressivity. A cross-sectional study collected data from 274 male police officers (from PSP – Portuguese Police of Public Security) exercising urban patrol tasks in Porto or Lisbon. Low burnout and moderate aggressivity levels were found, with positive significant correlations. Regression analysis reveals that burnout, more than socio-demographic characteristics, predicts 13% to 22% of aggressivity. In particular, feelings of high depersonalisation and low personal accomplishment are the burnout dimensions that most strongly explain anger and aggressivity, whereas emotional exhaustion only explains 4% of verbalaggression. The study highlights the need to develop prevention strategies of stress, aiming to avoid the development of burnout as occupational chronic stress, and decreasing the risk of developing aggressivity among police officers. Despite the wide literature in the area of police officers’ burnout and individual characteristics (e.g. aggressivity proneness as a personality trait), there is limitedresearch on the relationship between burnout and aggressivity. Within democratic societies where excessive use of force by police officers is criticised, aggressivity predicted by burnout reinforces the need to prevent occupational stress that leads to burnout.

Keywords: Aggressivity, burnout, police officers, patrollers, Portuguese sample

(1) Teacher in the Faculty of Psychology and Educational Sciences of the University of Porto, Portugal; co-director of the Psychosocial Rehabilitation Laboratory (FPCEUP/ESTSPIP

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